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What Domain Is Protists In

Written By Thursday, October 20, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Present

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'n

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[i] and typical phyla

  • ?Meteora sporadica [2]
  • Amoebozoa
  • Apusomonadida
  • Archaeplastida (in part)
    • Glaucophyta
    • Rhodophyta (red algae)
  • Breviatea
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Metamonada
    • Percolozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Opisthokonta (in role)
    • Choanoflagellatea
    • Cristidiscoidea
    • Filasterea
    • Ichthyosporea
    • Pluriformea
  • SAR
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included simply traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia (Metazoa)
  • Fungi (Opisthosporidia)
  • Plantae (Viridiplantae)

A protist () is whatsoever eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is non an beast, plant, or mucus. While it is probable that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor),[3] the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists practise non form a natural group, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists. Even so, like the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others allocate any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist.[iv] The study of protists is termed protistology.[5]

History [edit]

The classification of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was starting time proposed by John Hogg in 1860 equally the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom Protista every bit "the kingdom of primitive forms".[6] Originally these besides included prokaryotes, but with time[ when? ] these were removed to a fourth kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular 5-kingdom scheme proposed past Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues", and the fifth kingdom Fungi was established.[7] [8] [c] In the v-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more than inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included sure large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, ruddy algae, and slime molds.[11] Some use the term protist interchangeably with Margulis's protoctist, to comprehend both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that form specialized tissues just exercise not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.[12]

Clarification [edit]

Besides their relatively simple levels of system, protists do non necessarily have much in common.[13] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to hateful a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing simply various taxa (biological groups); these taxa do not have an sectional mutual ancestor beyond being composed of eukaryotes, and have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[14] [xv]

Examples of protists include:[16]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the cause of the Great Famine of Republic of ireland); and
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can join to form filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-similar mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, as both terms refer to a paraphyletic grouping that spans the unabridged eukaryotic co-operative of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are mostly distributed among diverse supergroups: examples include the

  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is mostly unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which usually includes unicellular flagellates, but too animals and fungi).
  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not within other traditional kingdoms. For example, the word "protist pathogen" may exist used to denote any disease-causing organism that is not establish, creature, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[17]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was showtime used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such every bit:[half-dozen]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "brute-similar" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such as motility, such every bit the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "plant-similar" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed by and large of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-like flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds generally refer to fungi; but slime molds and water molds are "mucus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. 2 separate types of slime molds exist, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, accept been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published nether either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[xviii] [19] Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). Molecular analyses in modernistic taxonomy accept been used to redistribute old members of this group into various and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the h2o molds are at present considered to exist closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes but a subset of the "Amoeba" group, and significant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

However, the older terms are yet used as informal names to describe the morphology and environmental of various protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments.

Classification [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Among the pioneers in the report of the protists, which were almost ignored past Linnaeus except for some genera (e.m., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[20] [21] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[22] The get-go groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[23] In 1818, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such equally ciliates and corals.[24] [6] After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animate being-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae.[25] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as archaic unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the and so-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[26] [6] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 past Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined every bit a "kingdom of primitive forms".[27] [28]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel'southward term Protista included anucleated microbes such every bit bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally meaning "first established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and fungi.[29] This classification was the footing for Whittaker's afterwards definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista every bit the four kingdoms of life.[9] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the split kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[7] These five kingdoms remained the accustomed classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became credible that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[30]

Modern classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today practice non treat Protista equally a formal taxon, but the term "protist" is withal unremarkably used for convenience in 2 ways.[31] The almost popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic group:[32] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (truthful) fungus; this definition[33] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and as well a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the by, the Myxozoa (animal).[34] Some systematists[ who? ] judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and employ Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (every bit found in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are substantially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[31] that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, practise not show differentiation into tissues (but vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such every bit cysts);[35] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular red and green algae, which may have tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is all the same changing. Newer classifications try to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (particularly ultrastructural),[36] [37] [38] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[39] [40] and Dna sequence (molecular inquiry) information.[41] [42] Notwithstanding, there are sometimes discordances betwixt molecular and morphological investigations; these tin can be categorized as 2 types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, ambiguous species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).[43]

Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems often split up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as separate lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme past Adl et al. (2005)[35] does non recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups as clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may exist treated every bit phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right.[44] Many are thought to exist monophyletic, though there is still dubiousness. For instance, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably only monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[45]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at past consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This classification proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Leaner and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains fourteen taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to every bit protists.[46]

Metabolism [edit]

Nutrition can vary according to the type of protist. Nigh eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, only the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that do not have / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria take entered into endosymbiontic human relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella accept captured a dark-green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that act as replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic bacteria as mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take identify where flagellates detect prey. Other protists tin engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a process termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional type Source of energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Most algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For most of import cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, it can be plant a heritage amidst protists.[47]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually past binary fission.

Some species, for instance Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely circuitous life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[48] However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may exist clonal lines that rarely commutation genes with other members of their species.[49]

Eukaryotes emerged in development more than 1.5 billion years ago.[50] The primeval eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread amongst extant eukaryotes, information technology seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could exist a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in sure pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early on from the eukaryotic family tree. Still, several of these protists are at present known to exist capable of, or to recently have had the adequacy for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the mutual intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was one time considered to exist a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. Even so, G. lamblia was recently found to take a core gear up of genes that role in meiosis and that are widely nowadays amidst sexual eukaryotes.[51] These results suggested that Chiliad. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct show for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex activity, was also found in G. lamblia.[52]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[53]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[54] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to be present, including eight of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings advise that T. vaginalis may exist capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were likewise present in G. lamblia, it appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and K. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent amongst eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[54] to suggest that these meiotic genes were likely present in a mutual ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[55]

This view was further supported by a study of amoebae by Lahr et al.[56] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. However, these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are aforetime sexual, and that the bulk of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early on researchers (e.thou., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.[57]

Protists mostly reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, simply tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such every bit starvation or heat shock.[58] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to exist an of import factor in the consecration of sexual activity in protists.[58]

Some normally constitute protist pathogens such as Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide multifariousness of animals – which act every bit secondary or intermediate host – but tin undergo sexual reproduction just in the chief or definitive host (for case: felids such as domestic cats in this case).[59] [60] [61]

Ecology [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Gratuitous-living protists occupy almost any surround that contains liquid water. Many protists, such every bit algae, are photosynthetic and are vital master producers in ecosystems, particularly in the sea as part of the plankton. Protists make upward a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[62]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such equally the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.

Parasitism: role as pathogens [edit]

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; 5 species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants[63] [64] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes belatedly blight in potatoes)[65] or even of other protists.[66] [67] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target evolution extremely hard – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also probable to harm its beast/plant host. A more thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For case, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast simply essential to carry out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.

Recent papers accept proposed the use of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.[68] [69]

Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to control red imported burn pismire (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such equally Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom at present)[70] can reduce cherry-red fire emmet populations by 53–100%.[71] Researchers have also been able to infect phorid wing parasitoids of the pismire with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist between red burn down emmet colonies.[72]

Fossil tape [edit]

Many protists have neither difficult parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[73] most ciliates,[74] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[75] choanoflagellates,[76] oomycetes,[77] brown algae,[78] yellow-light-green algae,[79] Excavata (e.chiliad., euglenids).[eighty] Some of these take been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or nether unusual conditions (e.m., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively common in the fossil record,[81] equally the diatoms,[82] gilt algae,[83] haptophytes (coccoliths),[84] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[85] green algae,[86] red algae,[87] heliozoans, radiolarians,[88] foraminiferans,[89] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[90] Some are fifty-fifty used equally paleoecological indicators to reconstruct aboriginal environments.

More probable eukaryote fossils begin to announced at well-nigh 1.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[91] Another possible representative of early on fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

See also [edit]

  • Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The first eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the final eukaryotic common ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera eventually became the two domains Leaner and Archaea.[half-dozen]
  3. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as leaner. Herbert Copeland proposed split kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland's distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was somewhen critical in Whittaker proposing a final v-kingdom system, even though he resisted information technology for over a decade.[9] [10]

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Haeckel, Due east. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, K., Due north. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, 50., K.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, 50., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, Thou. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, West.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Multifariousness and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Printing, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, Thousand. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, part B (vol. 1 [ permanent dead link ] , Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), part C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D [ permanent dead link ] (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Order of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press.

External links [edit]

Wikimedia Eatables has media related to Protista.

  • A coffee applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Final modified: xi/18/13.
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Ocean – video
  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biological science, Hosei Academy.[one]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

What Domain Is Protists In,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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